In the central nervous system, it plays a role in arousal and reward mechanisms. The lifespan perspective in health psychology reveals that adolescents One of the shortcomings with the health belief model is Risk factors for a health problem People whose personalities include high levels of _____ seem to be "disease" When people have difficulty getting sleep due to their work or the demands of day-to-day life, they accumulate a sleep debt. You were capable of engaging in the all of the complex tasks involved with operating a motor vehicle even though you were not aware of doing so. Another evolutionary hypothesis of sleep holds that our sleep patterns evolved as an adaptive response to predatory risks, which increase in darkness. c. are influenced by peer pressure, often leading to unhealthful or unsafe behaviors. In addition, these drugs can cause feelings of anxiety, hallucinations, and paranoia (Fiorentini et al., 2011). As already mentioned, the hypothalamus contains the SCNthe biological clock of the bodyin addition to other nuclei that, in conjunction with the thalamus, regulate slow-wave sleep. a. Feeling tired. The 20th century Swiss psychiatrist Carl Jung believed that dreams allowed us to tap into the collective unconscious. They can be helpful for people working night shifts or for people affected by seasonal variations in light. In fact, abuse of prescription opioid medications is becoming a major concern worldwide (Aquina, Marques-Baptista, Bridgeman, & Merlin, 2009; Casati, Sedefov, & Pfeiffer-Gerschel, 2012). Vaping uses battery-powered devices, sometimes called e-cigarettes, that deliver liquid nicotine and flavorings as a vapor. We might even describe consciousness as a continuum that ranges from full awareness to a deep sleep. Methamphetamine addiction produces an intense craving that is difficult to treat. These components include: These steps are conducive to being open to the heightened suggestibility of hypnosis. D) the demographic characteristics of the person C) the severity and duration of the problem. This is known as the REM rebound, and it suggests that REM sleep is also homeostatically regulated. Among a variety of neurobiological evidence, John Hobson cites research on lucid dreams as an opportunity to better understand dreaming in general. A) managed care Recently, a new EPAP (expiratory positive air pressure) device has shown promise in double-blind trials as one such alternative (Berry, Kryger, & Massie, 2011). . One of the most common treatments for sleep apnea involves the use of a special device during sleep. For instance, if a woman dreams about being chased by a snake, Freud might have argued that this represents the womans fear of sexual intimacy, with the snake serving as a symbol of a mans penis. While this is an intuitive explanation of sleep, there is little research that supports this explanation. As part of treatment, the sleeping environment is often modified to make it a safer place for those suffering from RBD (Zangini, Calandra-Buonaura, Grimaldi, & Cortelli, 2011). In general, smoking cessation programs may be effective in the short term, but it is unclear whether these effects persist (Cropley, Theadom, Pravettoni, & Webb, 2008; Levitt, Shaw, Wong, & Kaczorowski, 2007; Smedslund, Fisher, Boles, & Lichtenstein, 2004). The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. By analyzing dreams, Freud thought people could increase self-awareness and gain valuable insight to help them deal with the problems they faced in their lives. Surprisingly, narcoleptic episodes are often triggered by states of heightened arousal or stress. (a) Common paraphernalia for heroin preparation and use are shown here in a needle exchange kit. Is it absolutely essential that we sleep? How does hypnosis work? In Hilgards experiments, he induced participants into a state of hypnosis, and placed their arms into ice water. During sleep, the pituitary gland secretes both FSH and LH which are important in regulating the reproductive system (Christensen et al., 2012; Sofikitis et al., 2008). Unlike Freud and Jung, Cartwrights ideas about dreaming have found empirical support. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? With repeated use of many central nervous system depressants, such as alcohol, a person becomes physically dependent upon the substance and will exhibit signs of both tolerance and withdrawal. While awake, we feel alert and aware of the many important things going on around us. It is relatively easy to wake someone from stage 1 sleep; in fact, people often report that they have not been asleep if they are awoken during stage 1 sleep. Pain relief, euphoria, sleepiness. Sleep apnea is defined as a reduction or cessation of breathing during sleep. c. absence of subjective symptoms of disease. Other drugs, including the opioid buprenorphine, have also been used to alleviate symptoms of opiate withdrawal. Marijuana, LSD, Peyote, mescaline, DMT, dissociative anesthetics including ketamine and PCP, Increased heart rate and blood pressure that may dissipate over time, Mild to intense perceptual changes with high variability in effects based on strain, method of ingestion, and individual differences, Understand what is meant by consciousness, Explain how circadian rhythms are involved in regulating the sleep-wake cycle, and how circadian cycles can be disrupted, Describe areas of the brain involved in sleep, Understand hormone secretions associated with sleep, Describe several theories aimed at explaining the function of sleep, Differentiate between REM and non-REM sleep, Describe the differences between the three stages of non-REM sleep, Understand the role that REM and non-REM sleep play in learning and memory, Describe the symptoms and treatments of insomnia, Recognize the symptoms of several parasomnias, Describe the symptoms and treatments for sleep apnea, Recognize risk factors associated with sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) and steps to prevent it, Describe the symptoms and treatments for narcolepsy. Stage 2 sleep is characterized by the appearance of both sleep spindles and K-complexes. Early versions of this theory proposed that dreams were not the meaning-filled representations of angst proposed by Freud and others, but were rather the result of our brain attempting to make sense of (synthesize) the neural activity (activation) that was happening during REM sleep. Jet lagis a collection of symptoms that results from the mismatch between our internal circadian cycles and our environment. Weakness and fatigue. Psychological dependence, or drug craving, is a recent addition to the diagnostic criteria for substance use disorder in DSM-5. Historically, hypnosis has been viewed with some suspicion because of its portrayal in popular media and entertainment (Figure 4.20). You don't have to be a psychologist to know that conditions like hunger or fatigue have an impact on thinking and decision-making; these are examples of internal states. Marijuana may also have some promise in the treatment of a variety of medical conditions (Mather, Rauwendaal, Moxham-Hall, & Wodak, 2013; Robson, 2014; Schicho & Storr, 2014). (a) A typical CPAP device used in the treatment of sleep apnea is (b) affixed to the head with straps, and a mask that covers the nose and mouth. Rapid eye movement (REM)sleep is characterized by darting movements of the eyes under closed eyelids. There may be many factors that contribute to insomnia, including age, drug use, exercise, mental status, and bedtime routines. Physiologically, the body can become addicted to opiate drugs in less than a week, including when taken as prescribed. REM sleep behavior disorder (RBD)occurs when the muscle paralysis associated with the REM sleep phase does not occur. As you will learn when you study social roles, peoples behavior can be shaped by their expectations of how they should act in a given situation. Adepressantis a drug that tends to suppress central nervous system activity. (a) This is a statue of a meditating Buddha, representing one of the many religious traditions of which meditation plays a part. Inflammation has many causes, including infections, injuries, and diseases. High doses of MDMA can cause brain toxicity and death. In the brain, the hypothalamus, which lies above the pituitary gland, is a main center of homeostasis. The brain waves associated with REM sleep, outlined in the red box in (a), look very similar to those seen (b) during wakefulness. One important regulator of sleep-wake cycles is the hormonemelatonin. Many of these drugs act as agonists of the dopamine neurotransmitter system. There is a tremendous amount of variability among sufferers, both in terms of how symptoms of narcolepsy manifest and the effectiveness of currently available treatment options. For example, most people sleep during the night and are awake during the day. Biological rhythmsare internal rhythms of biological activity. During periods of emotional arousal, the woman complained that she felt some weakness on the right side of her body. The clock sets itself with light information received through projections from the retina. Furthermore, these types of behaviors ultimately disrupt sleep, although affected individuals have no memories that these behaviors have occurred (Arnulf, 2012). It is typically consumed in pill form. Heroin produces intense feelings of euphoria and pleasure, which are amplified when the heroin is injected intravenously. Our lives involve regular, dramatic changes in the degree to which we are aware of our surroundings and our internal states. Users experience increased energy, feelings of pleasure, and emotional warmth. While sleep apnea is less common in thin people, anyone, regardless of their weight, who snores loudly or gasps for air while sleeping, should be checked for sleep apnea. Many people experience disturbances in their sleep at some point in their lives. Few people in the United States remain untouched by the recent opioid epidemic. These symptoms usually are opposite of the effects of the drug. While we have discussed the negative outcomes associated with sleep deprivation, it should be pointed out that there are many benefits that are associated with adequate amounts of sleep. These will soon, in all ordinary cases, subdue the most distressing symptoms, and effect a perfect cure in a day or two. A neighbor called the police after witnessing Falater standing over his wifes body before dragging her into the pool. b. life expectancy has reached a new high. Physical dependenceinvolves changes in normal bodily functionsthe user will experience withdrawal from the drug upon cessation of use. In 2012, Kromann and Nielson reported on a case study of a 40-year-old woman who suffered significant ill effects from her use of caffeine. Some can cause heightened sensitivity to physical stimuli. Sleep regulationrefers to the brains control of switching between sleep and wakefulness as well as coordinating this cycle with the outside world. Many of these processes, like much of psychological behavior, are rooted in our biology. The effects of all psychoactive drugs occur through their interactions with our endogenous neurotransmitter systems. Despite recent changes in laws designed to make obtaining pseudoephedrine more difficult, methamphetamine continues to be an easily accessible and relatively inexpensive drug option (Shukla, Crump, & Chrisco, 2012). Add a comment. Psychology 2e by Openstax is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted. Neurogenic shock is caused by damage to the central nervous system, usually a spinal cord injury. It is not uncommon for people suffering from insomnia to experience increased levels of anxiety about their inability to fall asleep. Surprisingly, sleep apnea may exacerbate cardiovascular disease (Snchez-de-la-Torre, Campos-Rodriguez, & Barb, 2012). According to Jung, certain symbols in dreams reflected universal archetypes with meanings that are similar for all people regardless of culture or location. Thecollective unconscious, as described byJung, is a theoretical repository of information he believed to be shared by everyone. Night terrors apparently occur during the NREM phase of sleep (Provini, Tinuper, Bisulli, & Lagaresi, 2011). 1. The chapter will close with discussions of altered states of consciousness produced by psychoactive drugs, hypnosis, and meditation. This disorder is associated with a number of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinsons disease. For instance, have you ever daydreamed while driving home from work or school without really thinking about the drive itself? It is much more difficult to awaken someone from sleep during stage 3 than during earlier stages. Normal brain functioning is altered after repeated use of these drugs. In 2015, the National Sleep Foundation updated their sleep duration hours, to better accommodate individual differences. Thus, opioid drugs, which mimic this endogenous painkilling mechanism, have an extremely high potential for abuse. Manifest contentis the actual content, or storyline, of a dream. A hypnogram is a diagram of the stages of sleep as they occur during a period of sleep. Because the biological clock is driven by light, exposure to bright light during working shifts and dark exposure when not working can help combat insomnia and symptoms of anxiety and depression (Huang, Tsai, Chen, & Hsu, 2013). Sleep-wake cycles seem to be controlled by multiple brain areas acting in conjunction with one another. The term was first coined by a physiologist named Walter Cannon in 1926. Drugwithdrawalincludes a variety of negative symptoms experienced when drug use is discontinued. It is possible that even the processing of emotional information is influenced by certain aspects of sleep (Walker, 2009). Restless leg syndrome is quite common and has been associated with a number of other medical diagnoses, such as chronic kidney disease and diabetes (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Mescaline and LSD are serotonin agonists, and PCP (angel dust) and ketamine (an animal anesthetic) act as antagonists of the NMDA glutamate receptor. Depletion of certain neurotransmitters can lead to mood dysphoria, cognitive problems, and other factors. This discomfort is relieved by deliberately moving the legs, which, not surprisingly, contributes to difficulty in falling or staying asleep. The following describe internal states of symptoms EXCEPT? Some newer CPAP masks are smaller and cover only the nose. One of the nurses said, If youve had a partner who does work regular job 9 to 5 office hours . Although there are a number of different techniques in use, the central feature of all meditation is clearing the mind in order to achieve a state of relaxed awareness and focus (Chen et al., 2013; Lang et al., 2012). Thus, K-complexes might serve as a bridge to higher levels of arousal in response to what is going on in our environments (Halsz, 1993; Steriade & Amzica, 1998). Once awakened from a narcoleptic attack, people report that they feel refreshed (Chokroverty, 2010). Hypnosis has also been used to draw out information believed to be buried deeply in someones memory. Aside from the role that REM sleep may play in processes related to learning and memory, REM sleep may also be involved in emotional processing and regulation. In individuals diagnosed with a substance use disorder, there is a compulsive pattern of drug use that is often associated with both physical and psychological dependence. As a group, hallucinogens are incredibly varied in terms of the neurotransmitter systems they affect. The fifth edition of theDiagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders,Fifth Edition(DSM-5) is used by clinicians to diagnose individuals suffering from various psychological disorders. Methamphetamine in its smokable form, often called crystal meth due to its resemblance to rock crystal formations, is highly addictive. Anopioidis one of a category of drugs that includes heroin, morphine, methadone, and codeine. Hypnosisis a state of extreme self-focus and attention in which minimal attention is given to external stimuli. In other words, physical dependence in and of itself is of limited utility in determining whether or not someone has a substance use disorder. The participant is guided to focus on one thing, such as the hypnotists words or a ticking watch. Aside from their utility as analgesic drugs, opioid-like compounds are often found in cough suppressants, anti-nausea, and anti-diarrhea medications. She indicated that she had fallen asleep at inappropriate or dangerous times, including while eating, while socializing with friends, and while driving her car. Taking a different approach to explain hypnosis, the social-cognitive theory of hypnosis sees people in hypnotic states as performing the social role of a hypnotized person. Aches and pains, such as severe headache and muscle and joint pain. Furthermore, slow-wave sleep after learning a new task can improve resultant performance on that task (Huber, Ghilardi, Massimini, & Tononi, 2004) and seems essential for effective memory formation (Stickgold, 2005). Asleep spindleis a rapid burst of higher frequency brain waves that may be important for learning and memory (Fogel & Smith, 2011; Poe, Walsh, & Bjorness, 2010). Generally, and for most people, our circadian cycles are aligned with the outside world. d. both b and c. 2. Access for free athttps://openstax.org/books/psychology-2e/pages/1-introduction. Our experiences change dramatically while we are in deep sleep and once again when we are dreaming. . There are two types of sleep apnea: obstructive sleep apnea and central sleep apnea. b. absence of signs of malfunctioning. While there are variations, there are four parts that appear consistent in bringing people into the state of suggestibility associated with hypnosis (National Research Council, 1994). There are individual differences in regard to our sleep-wake cycle. The different stages of sleep will be identified, and sleep disorders will be described. LINK TO LEARNING: To learn more about some of the most commonly abused prescription and street drugs, check out the, LINK TO LEARNING: Feeling stressed? For one, research suggests that infants should be placed on their backs when put down to sleep, and their cribs should not contain any items which pose suffocation threats, such as blankets, pillows or padded crib bumpers (cushions that cover the bars of a crib). It appeared that Scott Falater had killed his wife in his sleep, or at least, that is the defense he used when he was tried for his wifes murder (Cartwright, 2004; CNN, 1999). Chronic insomnia is almost always associated with feeling overtired and may be associated with symptoms of depression. Several of the nurses interviewed commented that their work schedules affected their relationships with their family. High doses can induce sleep, cause motor disturbance, memory loss, decreased respiratory function, and death. Many individuals diagnosed with sleep apnea first seek treatment because their sleeping partners indicate that they snore loudly and/or stop breathing for extended periods of time while sleeping (Henry & Rosenthal, 2013). The early portion of stage 1 sleep producesalpha waves, which are relatively low frequency (813Hz), high amplitude patterns of electrical activity (waves) that become synchronized (Figure 4.8). In the therapeutic setting, a clinician may use relaxation and suggestion in an attempt to alter the thoughts and perceptions of a patient. 23. Why do we devote so much time to sleeping? In such instances, the individuals schedule changes so frequently that it becomes difficult for a normal circadian rhythm to be maintained. These initiatives include increasing access to treatment and recovery services, increasing access to overdose-reversal drugs like Naloxone, and implementing better public health monitoring systems (NIDA, 2019). . In this section, we will discuss each of these stages of sleep and their associated patterns of brain wave activity. Insudden infant death syndrome (SIDS)an infant stops breathing during sleep and dies. While opioid withdrawal can be extremely unpleasant, it is not life-threatening (Julien, 2005). We might also experience unconscious states of being via drug-induced anesthesia for medical purposes. The sleep and dreaming researcher Rosalind Cartwright, however, believes that dreams simply reflect life events that are important to the dreamer. An agonist facilitates the activity of a neurotransmitter system, and antagonists impede neurotransmitter activity. Like hypnosis, meditation also shows promise in stress management, sleep quality (Caldwell, Harrison, Adams, Quin, & Greeson, 2010), treatment of mood and anxiety disorders (Chen et al., 2013; Freeman et al., 2010; Vllestad, Nielsen, & Nielsen, 2012), and pain management (Reiner, Tibi, & Lipsitz, 2013). An important difference between mood disorders and normal mood fluctuation is: A) the particular medication used to treat the problem. One or two nights of sleep difficulty is not unusual, but if you experience anything more than that, you should seek a doctors advice. Some people who have injected many times into their arms will show track marks, while other users will inject into areas between their fingers or between their toes, so as not to show obvious track marks and, like all abusers of intravenous drugs, have an increased risk for contraction of both tuberculosis and HIV. Again, this is an intuitive and appealing explanation for why we sleep. Lucid dreamsare dreams in which certain aspects of wakefulness are maintained during a dream state. For example, around one third of individuals diagnosed with narcolepsy experience vivid, dream-like hallucinations during narcoleptic attacks (Chokroverty, 2010). The typical positive symptoms of schizophrenia , such as hallucinatory experiences or fixed delusional beliefs, tend to be very upsetting and disruptivenot a positive experience at all for you or someone you care about who is experiencing them. Psychometric analysis indicates that the ISS is composed of four principle components, producing four subscales. These kinds of schedules are common for individuals working in health care professions and service industries, and they are associated with persistent feelings of exhaustion and agitation that can make someone more prone to making mistakes on the job (Gold et al., 1992; Presser, 1995). Rotating shift work has pervasive effects on the lives and experiences of individuals engaged in that kind of work, which is clearly illustrated in stories reported in a qualitative study that researched the experiences of middle-aged nurses who worked rotating shifts (West, Boughton & Byrnes, 2009). The FDAs 2013 recommendation for tighter controls on opiate prescriptions left many patients addicted to prescription drugs like OxyContin unable to obtain legitimate prescriptions. Freud was not the only theorist to focus on the content of dreams. THE INTERNAL STATE SCALE (ISS) Version 2 and the ChronoBook SCORING KEY AND SUMMARY Mark S. Bauer, MD . People who suffer from insomnia might limit their use of stimulant drugs (such as caffeine) or increase their amount of physical exercise during the day. Adenosine is a neurotransmitter that promotes sleep. Alan Hobson, a neuroscientist, is credited for developing activation-synthesis theory of dreaming. Evolutionary psychologyis a discipline that studies how universal patterns of behavior and cognitive processes have evolved over time as a result ofnatural selection. By the late 19th century, German psychiatrist SigmundFreudhad become convinced that dreams represented an opportunity to gain access to the unconscious. This becomes a self-perpetuating cycle because increased anxiety leads to increased arousal, and higher levels of arousal make the prospect of falling asleep even more unlikely. Mindfulness meditation has recently become popular. (credit: modification of work by new 1lluminati/Flickr), Medical marijuana shops are becoming more and more common in the United States. These same women were awakened during REM sleep in order to provide a detailed account of their dream content. This chart illustrates the circadian change in body temperature over 28 hours in a group of eight young men. As a result, many of us sleep less than 78 hours a night and accrue a sleep debt. That includes exercise and bright light from devices. Although individuals suffering from night terrors appear to be awake, they generally have no memories of the events that occurred, and attempts to console them are ineffective. (2005) found that sleepwalking was not alleviated with the use of benzodiazepines. Night terrorsresult in a sense of panic in the sufferer and are often accompanied by screams and attempts to escape from the immediate environment (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Users often consume the drug every few hours across days-long binges called runs, in which the user forgoes food and sleep. This often results in sleeping problems, and it can lead to signs of depression and anxiety. While we all experience altered states of consciousness in the form of sleep on a regular basis, some people use drugs and other substances that result in altered states of consciousness as well. A person withrestless leg syndromehas uncomfortable sensations in the legs during periods of inactivity or when trying to fall asleep. Some of these approaches, such as using a bright light as shown inFigure 4.4, have been shown to alleviate some of the problems experienced by individuals suffering from jet lag or from the consequences of rotating shift work. Therefore, the abuse potential of central nervous system depressants is relatively high. Acute alcohol administration results in a variety of changes to consciousness. Sleep apneais defined by episodes during which a sleepers breathing stops. The woman used caffeine in the past to boost her mood and to provide energy, but over the course of several years, she increased her caffeine consumption to the point that she was consuming three liters of soda each day. They named each of the three states: "Close," when a male is closer than average to a female and approaching her slowly; "Chasing," when he is approaching quickly; and "Whatever," when he is facing away from her and moving slowly. The heart rate slows . Sleepwalking most often occurs during slow-wave sleep, but it can occur at any time during a sleep period in some affected individuals (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Ahallucinogenis one of a class of drugs that results in profound alterations in sensory and perceptual experiences (Figure 4.18). For example, Hobson (2009) suggests that dreaming may represent a state of protoconsciousness. While many users snort cocaine, intravenous injection and inhalation (smoking) are also common. Consider a patient who believed that as a result of his sleep apnea he had three car accidents in six weeks. Upset stomach and vomiting. Codeineis an opioid with relatively low potency. Increased prescriptions led to greater rates of misuse, along with greater incidence of addiction, even among patients who used these drugs as prescribed. Loss of appetite. If someone stays awake for 48 consecutive hours, they could start to hallucinate. Sleepwalking, restless leg syndrome, and night terrors are all examples of parasomnias (Mahowald & Schenck, 2000). Diarrhea. These changes in brain wave activity can be visualized using EEG and are distinguished from one another by both the frequency and amplitude of brain waves (Figure 4.7). 22. Primary signs and symptoms of Ebola often include some or several of the following: Fever. Therefore, it is quite likely that new medications that are developed to treat narcolepsy will be designed to target the hypocretin system.